How to Plan your Career

How to Plan your Career
By Dr. S. S. Chadha

As soon as a young child comes out of school he is confronted with the problem of choosing which is the most appropriate stream of studies for him to study further i.e. Humanities, Non-Medical, Medical, Commerce, Arts, Agriculture, Vocational trades etc. This decision will set limit for his future choice of career. Leaving aside some common overlapping fields of occupations he is left with the option to make a choice of his career from the fields of occupations covered under that stream of education only. Therefore, such choice of stream must be right one so that he will not have to regret for a wrong choice later on. Thus, this exercise of choice has assumed very great significance in his life.

Of course, you as a parent will pool your all resources to best guide your child in an effort to make most suitable choice for him. You will also elicit the help of his teachers as well as known persons and your relatives. Your combined efforts may lead to a realistic choice of course which will ultimately take him to enter an occupation of that field but it is also possible that in absence of most reliable scientific psychological data about your child, your child may make a decision which may turn out to be an unrealistic one. If your child is very bright and his targeted career is below his potentials it is termed as an unrealistic choice. Similarly, if your child has middle level abilities but his choice of career needs higher level of abilities such a choice will also be considered an unrealistic one. Hence, your child needs assistance of an expert to steer him out of such problematic situations in order to make a right choice. In case, such help is not forthcoming readily you may follow some of the suggestions listed below to arrive at an appropriate choice of courses of further studies in order to make him an efficient employable person in life.

Are you aware about the correct usage of the term career which is being discussed here? If you already know, it is fine, but some of you may still desire to know it. Let it be defined first of all as this term is interchanged with terms like job, occupation, calling and vocation. Let us start with clear understanding of the term “CAREER”.

Occupational psychology defines career as a ladder of occupations showing your upward mobility (in certain cases downward mobility). After completion of targeted education you will join an initial occupation and will go on further through out your working life passing through one occupation to another. This process is termed as your ‘career’.

What is Career Planning?

Career planning is a process of deciding your ideal and an appropriate career based upon your course of studies, which rightly commensurate with your basic aptitudes, work preferences; Need to Achieve (n Ach), personality traits and work style based on your acquired skills, self confidence, attitudes, adjustment level and emotional intelligence levels etc.

What does Career Planning Process Constitute?

1. The first step in career planning is to gain a better understanding of your basic aptitudes, intrinsic interests (work prefereances) , n ‘ach (need achievement), personality and its traits, self confidence, adjustment status and psychological hurdles affecting careers. You will benefit by using testing batteries of these factors. So apply different types of Career Inventories, also known as Tests to assist you.

Hence you have to:

1. Find out your career related aptitudes.
2. Sort out matching fields of course of future studies, which commensurate with your aptitudes.
3. On the basis of your aptitudes’ results discover occupations that match your courses of
studies and other competencies.
4. Try to know how you will adjust:-
to people working in such careers;
i. related circumstances and demands of your aptitudes to execute it;
ii.work preferences in such occupation;
iii.personality traits which facilitate in such occupation;
iv.other competencies needed in your work environments;
v.and visualize whether these adjustments will result in ‘stresses or satisfaction’.
5. Work out transferable skills as well and accomplishments so that alternative line can be taken in case of readjustment to changing situations.
6. Know your emotional intelligence levels as it is an indicator of success in your career.

2. The second step involves the analysis of collected and compiled occupational information about occupational options suggested by the results of your test results. This step will cover:-

1. Working environment and conditions.
2. Training, other qualifications.
3. Advancement opportunities.
4. Employment trends.
5. Future job outlook.
6. Compensation and related occupations.
7. Other incentives.

3. The third step involves decision making. You have to develop a career plan in consultation with Career Counsellor keeping in mind the data so far collected. Take the assistance of experienced Career Counsellor.

4. The fourth step is to execute the career plan by undergoing the course of studies related to your choice. Take effective steps if any readjustment is warranted to carry out your Career Planning. There are significant factors which play prominent role in career development. The details about some of such important factors needs clarifications to understand their roles properly which are listed to update your understanding. Role of Aptitudes, Need to Achieve (n ‘Ach), Personality, Self-confidence, Adjustment, Emotional Intelligence, Work Preferences and Psychological Hurdles in career development.

Aptitudes: Your aptitudes are pointer to your symptomatic future performances. They determine the attainment levels as well as types of activities you are capable of doing. The modern research studies have established that there are nine independent basic aptitudes which are needed in execution of every occupation. Of course, every occupation requires different levels of these nine aptitudes. Their determination is finalized through multiple cut off technique. Researches have also determined the levels of aptitudes needed for almost every occupation. Career Counsellors have to find out the levels of these aptitudes of the individuals and match them with those of various occupations to find most suitable careers for them. Out of which they can exercise their final choices keeping in mind their individual preferences as well as market trends concerning such career. The nine basic aptitudes which are tested on General Aptitude Testing Battery are Intelligence coded as ‘G’, Verbal Aptitude coded as ‘V’, Numerical Aptitude coded as ‘N’, Spatial Aptitude coded as ‘S’, Form Perception coded as ’P’, Clerical Perception coded as ‘P’, Motor Co-Ordination coded as ‘K’, Finger Dexterity coded as ‘F’ and Manual Dexterity coded as ‘M’. Need to Achieve (n ‘Ach) contribution in career development is very paramount. In its measurement the following three aspects are covered using projective techniques:

To succeed in competition with some standard of excellence (example: I am preparing for

i. examination and hope to stand first in it).
Unique achievement (example: Ram is busy in bringing out the details of production of
ii. nuclear energy and has succeeded in inventing a new machine).
Long term involvement (example: I am preparing for pre-medical classes and I want to
ii. become a very good doctor).

Personality and personality traits: Your personality patterns will also be a deciding factor in selection of your choice. Whether you are emotionally liable or a balanced person will go a long way in deciding the career matching your personality. Extrovert persons are preferred in careers involving people interactions. Introverts are considered more suitable where fewer interactions with people are required. Neurotic patterns of personality are generally more suitable where quick actions are needed. These are prominent dimensions of your personality will make career a success if it matches with requirements of a given occupation otherwise may lead to problems in its execution. Now-a-days personality make up carries considerable weight in selection process. Personality measurement is done through Personality Inventories as well as through projective techniques.

Self-Confidence: It has been observed that lack of self-confidence is prominent cause of failures even though you are able and shining in the academic world. The quality of mind or spirit will enable you to face difficulties is indicator of your level of self-confidence. Generally lack of competence, secret-maintaining, physical disabilities, guilt and inferiority feelings as well as negative attitudes are responsible for low confidence. Overcome these weaknesses to built-up your self-confidence.

Adjustment: Good, very good, excellent or poor adjustment status in areas of emotional, social and educational field will smoothen or hinder your success in educational attainments as well as in social and career developments. It will go long way if you make better adjustment in your emotional, social and educational areas of life. Consult a counsellor in case you need improvement in any of these areas of life for promotion or success.

Emotional intelligence covers:

Your self-awareness.

a.Management of your emotions.
b.Your Self Motivation .
c.Recognizing emotions in other persons.
d.Handling relations competencies.
e.The recent studies have pointed out that emotional competencies were twice as important in contributing “EXCELLENCE” in you as were your pure “INTELLECT” and expertise. In contribution to excellence of a person it has been pointed by studies that cognitive (intellectual) capacities were about 27% more frequent on outstanding stars (persons) than average persons while greater strengths in emotional competencies’ were 53% more frequent in them.

The above reference will clear your understanding that emotional intelligence (E.Q.) is of paramount importance in giving better performances in your lives hence, while career planning get assessed your E.Q. to evaluate your chances of success in your career.

Work Preferences: The work preferences are associated with occupations. The most preferred work preferences for different occupations have been worked out for the available occupations. The aptitude levels and work preferences are taken into consideration for deciding suitable occupations you are capable of doing through multi cut off procedure.

Psychological Hurdles: During the long period of career counseling I have observed that young people suffer from different types of psychological hurdles. Prominent among them are ‘lack of knowledge of aptitudes and related fields of careers’, ‘lack of concentration’, ‘feelings of depressions’ as a result of stresses and strains they have to face constantly, ‘lack of self-confidence and motivation’, ‘uncontrolled temper’, ’ nervousness’, ‘sexual conflicts’, ‘inferiority feelings’ ‘fears and worries about financial support’, and ‘parental indifference and lack of rapport with them’ as well as problem of ‘how to study properly’ were found to be very common. Such hurdles contribute negatively in educational achievements which effect in their admissions to courses for which they will be otherwise suitable. It will be in their interest to take any step to minimize them in case they are victim to any of such psychological hurdles.

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AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITIES in India

1.Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural University (ANGRAU), Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh
2.Agricultural University Udaipur
3.Anand Agricultural University, Anand, Gujarat.
4.Assam Agricultural University (AAU) , Jorhat, Assam 785013
5.Bidhan Chandra Krishi Vishva Vidyalaya (BCKVV), West Bengal
6.Birsa Agricultural University (BAU), Ranchi, Jharkhand.
7.Central Agricultural University (CAU),Imphal, Manipur
8.Central Institute on Fisheries Education, Mumbai
9.Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya (PKV) , Akola, Maharashtra
10.Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture & Forestry (YSPUH&E), Himachal Pradesh
11.Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology (GBPAU&T), Pantnagar, Uttar Pradesh
12.Gujarat Agricultural University, Sardar Krushinagar Dantiwada (Banaskantha)
13.Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi
14.Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar
15.Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya (IGKVV), Krishak Nagar, Raipur
16.Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya(JNKVV), Jabalpur Madhya Pradesh
17.Junagadh Agricultural University (JAU), Junagadh, Gujarat
18.Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth (KKV), Dopali, Maharashtra
19.Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) Kerala
20.Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology (MPUAT), Udaipur, Rajasthan
21.Maharashtra Animal Sciences & Fisheries Sciences University (MASFSU), Nagpur, Maharashtra
22.Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth (MPKV), Maharashtra
23.Marathwada Agricultural University (MAU) Parbhani, Maharashtra
24.Narendra Deva University of Agriculture & Technology, Narendra Nagar Faizabad
25.Navsaro Agricultural University (NAU), Navsari, Gujarat
26.National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal
27.Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar
28.Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana
29.Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner
30.Rajendra Agricultural University (RAU) Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar
31.Sardar Vallabah Bhai Patel University of Agriculture & Technology (SVBPUAT), Meerut.
32.Sardar Krishi Nagar-Dantiwada Agricultural University (SADAU), Gujarat
33.Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Fishery Sciences & Technology (SKUAS&T), Jammu
34.Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Srinagar (J&K)
35.Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU), Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
36.Tamil Nadu Veterinary & Animal Sciences University (TNV&ASU), Chennai
37.University of Agricultural Sciences, G.K.V.K. Bangalore
38.University of Agricultural Sciences, Krishi Nagar, Dharwad, Karnataka
39.UP Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyay Pashu Chikitasa Vigyan Vishwavidyalaya, Mathura, UP.
40.Uttar Banga Krishi Vishwavidyalaya (UBKV), West Bangal
41.West Bengal University of Animal & Fishery Sciences (WBUA&FS), Kolkata

Robots Can Create Jobs, Too

Industrial robots can help companies compete by boosting quality and productivity. That's ultimately a benefit for American labor

By Jeff Burnstein

If you work in an American manufacturing company today, you should be worried about your job. I live in Michigan and have witnessed the destruction caused by shuttered factories and jobs shipped overseas. When plants close, whole communities suffer.

With unemployment at about 14 percent or higher in Michigan, it's not surprising some workers are afraid of robots capable of working seven days a week, 24 hours a day with great accuracy and reliability, capable of performing many tasks better than people.

That fear, so prevalent in the early days of robotics, today is misplaced. What should really give workers pause is when their companies won't use robots and other automated technologies to become stronger global competitors.

U.S. technology and business innovators recognize that robots in factories have the potential to save and create more jobs than they eliminate. Robots help companies turn out higher-quality and lower-cost goods to compete with those made in China, Mexico, India, or other low-wage nations. They remove people from dangerous and boring jobs they shouldn't have been doing in the first place, and put them in higher-skilled, higher-paying positions.
New Industries

There's also a large ecosystem of robotics-related companies in America that employ thousands of people who design, build, program, and service robots and the equipment they work with.

Look at the some of the new industries America wants to develop. To get the desired quality and productivity from plants that produce wind turbines, solar panels, and advanced batteries and the cars they go in, we need robots. They're just as essential to the successful development of these industries as they are to aerospace, consumer packaged goods, electronics, food, and lab automation.

Look at the new General Motors, whose Buick LaCrosse is built in its Fairfax (Kan.) plant, which contains more than 1,100 robots. GM is now hiring back some laid-off workers to keep up with growing demand for stylish, high-quality new cars.

Or talk to Drew Greenblatt, president of Marlin Steel Wire Products in Baltimore, who pays his workers $30 an hour plus benefits and beats overseas companies that pay much less, thanks in part to investments in robotics technology. In the 12 years he's owned the wire basket and hook maker, Greenblatt has doubled head count while increasing revenue sixfold. Marlin exports products all over the world, including to Belgium, Poland, Switzerland, Australia, and Taiwan, as a result of the high-quality products his company produces.
U.S. Growth Potential

The first industrial robot worldwide was installed in 1961 at a General Motors plant in New Jersey. Of the more than 1 million robots that work in manufacturing facilities worldwide, only a fifth are in U.S. factories. The relatively low adoption rate of robots in the U.S. is a hopeful sign, since we still have a chance to take advantage of robotics on a broader scale.

Industrial robotics also creates jobs at the companies that build and service the machines. Even though most of today's industrial robots are built in Japan and Europe, major robotics companies including ABB (ABB), Fanuc, Kuka Robotics, and Yaskawa Electric have U.S. divisions. Adept Technology (ADEP) is based in Pleasanton, Calif.

If you count robots working outside factories in fields including medicine, defense, and home maintenance, there are more than 8 million of the machines worldwide. Many leaders in those areas, including Intuitive Surgical Systems (ISRG) and iRobot (IRBT), are based in the U.S.

Robot-building competitions like First Robotics, founded by inventor Dean Kamen, excite today's students who will become tomorrow's engineers and entrepreneurs.

There was a saying popular at General Electric (GE) in the '80s that American industry needed to "automate, emigrate, or evaporate". In the ensuing decades, we've lost too many jobs to emigration and evaporation. I hope more companies will choose to automate before it's too late.

Jeff Burnstein is president of the Robotic Industries Assn., a trade group that promotes the industrial use of robotics, in Ann Arbor, Mich.

ref - http://www.businessweek.com/technology/content/may2010/tc20100526_198981.htm?chan=technology_special+report+--+ceo+guide+to+robots+in+the+workplace_special+report%3A+ceo+guide+to+robots+in+the+workplace

How Business Is Adopting Design Thinking

How Business Is Adopting Design Thinking
At GE, P&G, and other companies, a design perspective is a problem-solving apparatus that can be applied companywide

By Venessa Wong

When the best and brightest managers from GE (GE) attend the company's Crotonville learning center in Ossining, N.Y., for the Technical Leadership Development Course, they start by reading a comic book. For many of the handpicked participants, this is their first, uncomfortable encounter with design. They're stretched further over the two-week training as they're asked to decribe their toughest problem in a haiku and draw workflow and patient experience maps.

For Lawrence Murphy, the chief engineer of global design for GE Healthcare who leads the sessions and helped start the program, the goal is to equip employees with new problem-solving tools to help the company evolve to "imagination at work" from its focus on operations efficiency tool Six Sigma.

Managers looking to build design thinking throughout the organization can learn valuable lessons from pioneers such as GE Healthcare, Procter & Gamble (PG), and Philips Electronics (PHG). In addition to hiring design thinkers from schools, they have developed in-house programs to bring people—from all functions of the organization—to think through this lens.
Discomfort Is Good

Elevating design has boosted innovation and the bottom line at companies like GE. According a 2003 report by the Danish Design Center, increasing design activity such as design-related employee training boosted a company's revenue on average by 40% more than other companies over a five-year period. But the transition can prove difficult, and trying to convince experienced managers of the value of design-led innovation can lead to dead ends.

"We warn them that they'll be uncomfortable," says Peter Coughlan, who co-leads the transformation practice at design consultancy IDEO. "I tell clients you won't understand it until you experience it." Changing a company's culture can take years, he says, but the quickest route is to get managers to think about themselves as designers of their own organizations, which will help build support at all levels.

The trick, says Cynthia Tripp, marketing director for global design at P&G: "Don't turn it into an education program. Turn it into a problem-solving machine." Tripp has worked for the company for 21 years and approaches her own work with the same attitude. "Design education is not what we've been doing," she says. "I am trying to grow the business."

P&G operates offsite design thinking workshops that bring together employees from across the consumer-products giant, including R&D, market research, and purchasing, to use design methods such as visualization and prototyping to solve real problems for the company. The workshops, run around the world by volunteer employees called facilitators, last anywhere from a half-day to a week.

The program began in 2005 as part of former Chief Executive A.G. Lafley's Design Thinking Initiative, launched in 2001, and was led by Claudia Kotchka, former vice-president for design innovation and strategy. Although Kotchka retired last spring and Robert A. McDonald took over as CEO on July 1, company executives say that P&G plans to conduct more workshops and build design thinking into more activities.
Beating Their Criteria

In the past year, the number of facilitators grew to 175 from 100 and design thinking has started to spread organically, Tripp says. P&G offices in Latin America, Europe, and Asia are also starting workshops.

P&G measures the performance of design-thinking inspired ideas and products, says Tripp. In those terms, "We're beating our success criteria. Quantitative measures show we're doing very well."

Robert Schwartz, formerly associate director of P&G's Global Design Organization, is bringing some of this knowledge to GE Healthcare, where he has been general manager of global design for the past two years.

To nudge employees to use these creative skills, Schwartz says, GE measures and rewards them not only on what they achieved but also how they achieved it, based on "growth traits" such as clear thinking, inclusiveness, and imagination. When these traits become used more widely, "the results in the marketplace are remarkable."

The focus on design-led innovation helped Philips Lighting to transform itself over the past decade from a company that simply pushed products into the market into one that designs them with customer desires in mind, says CEO Rudy Provoost. His business, for example, is no longer just about light bulbs, but about designing ambience for consumers. Provoost says the company hopes to provide the bulbs and software to enable consumers to be their own lighting designers.

To support this culture, the company created the role of chief design officer, now held by Philips Design CEO Stefano Marzano, to participate in strategy discussions. Also, Philips Design employees lead workshops that involve case studies and project work about "high design," the company's term for its product development process, which integrates design into other functions such as marketing and technology and focuses on the end user. "We employ disciplines as diverse as psychology, cultural sociology, anthropology, and trend research, in addition to the more conventional design-related skills," says Heleen Engelen, Philips Design's senior design director for lighting.

Certainly, design thinking is not the only mechanism these corporations use to achieve growth. But for now, says GE's Schwartz, "if there's a box of crayons, we're a favorite color."

reference - http://www.businessweek.com/innovate/content/sep2009/id20090930_853305.htm

Centrifugal Force

When a body rotates about any axis other than one at its center of
mass, it exerts an outward radial force called centrifugal force upon the axis or any arm or cord from the axis that restrains it from moving in a straight (tangential) line.

Selection of Ball and Roller Bearings

As compared with sleeve bearings, ball and roller bearings offer the following advantages:
1) Starting friction is low;
2) Less axial space is required;
3) Relatively accurate shaft alignment can be maintained;
4 ) Both radial and axial loads can be carried by certain types;
5) Angle of load application is not restricted;
6) Replacement is relatively easy;
7) Comparatively heavy overloads can be carried momentarily;
8) Lubrication is simple; and
9) Design and application can be made with the assistance of bearing supplier engineers.

In selecting a ball or roller bearing for a specific application five choices must be made:

1) the bearing series;
2) the type of bearing;
3) the size of bearing;
4) the method of lubrication; and
5) the type of mounting.
Naturally these considerations are modified or affected by the anticipated operating conditions, expected life, cost, and overhaul philosophy.

It is well to review the possible history of the bearing and its function in the machine it will be applied to, thus:
1) Will it be expected to endure removal and reapplication?;
2) Must it be free from maintenance attention during its useful life?;
3) Can wear of the housing or shaft be tolerated during the overhaul period?;
4) Must it be adjustable to take up wear, or to change shaft location?;
5) How accurately can the load spectrum be estimated? and;
6) Will it be relatively free from abuse in operation?.

Though many cautions could be pointed out, it should always be remembered that inadequate design approaches limit the utilization of rolling element bearings, reduce customersatisfaction, and reduce reliability. Time spent in this stage of design is the most rewarding effort of the bearing engineer, and here again he can depend on the bearing manufacturers field organization for assistance.

Type: Where loads are low, ball bearings are usually less expensive than roller bearings in terms of unit-carrying capacity. Where loads are high, the reverse is usually true.

For a purely radial load, almost any type of radial bearing can be used, the actual choice being determined by other factors. To support a combination of thrust and radial loads, several types of bearings may be considered. If the thrust load component is large, it may be most economical to provide a separate thrust bearing. When a separate thrust bearing cannot be used due to high speed, lack of space, or other factors, the following types may be considered: angular contact ball bearing, deep groove ball bearing without filling slot, tapered roller bearing with steep contact angle, and self-aligning bearing of the wide type. If movement or deflection in an axial direction must be held to a minimum, then a separate thrust bearing or a preloaded bearing capable of taking considerable thrust load is required.

To minimize deflection due to a moment in an axial plane, a rigid bearing such as a double row angular contact type with outwardly converging load lines is required. In such cases,the resulting stresses must be taken into consideration in determining the proper size of the
bearing.

For shock loads or heavy loads of short duration, roller bearings are usually preferred.

Special bearing designs may be required where accelerations are usually high as in planetary or crank motions.

Where the problem of excessive shaft deflection or misalignment between shaft and
housing is present, a self-aligning type of bearing may be a satisfactory solution.
It should be kept in mind that a great deal of difficulty can be avoided if standard types of bearings are used in preference to special designs, wherever possible.

Size: The size of bearing required for a given application is determined by the loads that are to be carried and, in some cases, by the amount of rigidity that is necessary to limit deflection to some specified amount.

The forces to which a bearing will be subjected can be calculated by the laws of engineering mechanics from the known loads, power, operating pressure, etc. Where loads are irregular, varying, or of unknown magnitude, it may be difficult to determine the actual forces. In such cases, empirical determination of such forces, based on extensive experience in bearing design, may be needed to attack the problem successfully. Where such experience is lacking, the bearing manufacturer should be consulted or the services of a bearing expert obtained.

If a ball or roller bearing is to be subjected to a combination of radial and thrust loads, an equivalent radial load is computed in the case of radial or angular type bearings and an equivalent thrust load is computed in the case of thrust bearings.

Crane chains

Strength of Chains

When calculating the strength of chains it should be observed that the strength of a link subjected to tensile stresses is not equal to twice the strength of an iron
bar of the same diameter as the link stock, but is a certain amount less, owing to the bending action caused by the manner in which the load is applied to the link. The strength is also reduced somewhat by the weld. The following empirical formula is commonly used for calculating the breaking load, in pounds, of wrought-iron crane chains:
W = 54,000D2
in which W = breaking load in pounds and D = diameter of bar (in inches) from which links are made. The working load for chains should not exceed one-third the value of W, and, it is often one-fourth or one-fifth of the breaking load. When a chain is wound around a casting and severe bending stresses are introduced, a greater factor of safety should be used.

Care of Hoisting and Crane Chains
Chains used for hoisting heavy loads are subject
to deterioration, both apparent and invisible. The links wear, and repeated loading causes localized deformations to form cracks that spread until the links fail.

Chain wear can be reduced by occasional lubrication. The life of a wrought-iron chain can be prolonged by frequent annealing or normalizing unless it has been so highly or frequently stressed that small cracks have formed. If this condition is present, annealing or normalizing will not “heal” the material, and the links will eventually fracture. To anneal a wrought-iron chain, heat it to cherry-red and allow it to cool slowly. Annealing should be done every six months, and oftener if the chain is subjected to unusually severe service.

Chains should be examined periodically for twists, as a twisted chain will wear rapidly. Any links that have worn excessively should be replaced with new ones, so that every link will do its full share of work during the life of the chain, without exceeding the limit of safety. Chains for hoisting purposes should be made with short links, so that they will wrap closely around the sheaves or drums without bending. The diameter of the winding drums should be not less than 25 or 30 times the diameter of the iron used for the links. The accompanying table lists the maximum allowable wear for various sizes of chains.

CAM Design and Manufacturing Handbook

By Robert L. Norton, P.E. 2001, 640 pp., illus., ISBN 0-8311-3122-5
Written by a professional with extensive practical and teaching experience
in mechanical engineering, Cam Design and Manufacturing
Handbook brings together up-to-date cam design technology and cam
research in one volume for the design and manufacturing of cam-follower
systems. Beginning at an introductory level and progressing to
more advanced topics, this comprehensive handbook includes complete
coverage of: Proper Cam Design. Single and Multi Dwells. Classical
Cam Functions. Polynomial Cams. Spline Functions. Pressure Angles
& Radius of Curvature. Radial and Barrel Cams. Translating &
Oscillating Followers. Roller & Flat-Faced Followers. Forward &
Inverse Dynamics. Residual Vibrations. Polydyne & Splinedyne Cams.
Cam Profile Definition. Cutter Compensation. Conjugate Cams. Cam Materials & Manufacturing
Techniques. Analysis of the Cam Follower Joint. Lubrication of the Cam Follower Joint.
Measurement of Cam Follower Dynamics. Case Studies from Automotive & Automated
Manufacturing. Extensive Bibliography.
What's more, this unique book is accompanied by a 90-day trial demonstration copy of the Professional
version of DYNACAM for Windows V. 7.0. Written by the author and used worldwide,
this program will solve most of the equations described in the book and allows--in its fully
licensed version--the design, dynamic modeling, analysis, and generation of follower center, cam
surface, and cutter coordinate data for any cam. It also defines conjugates for any cam design.

Solar energy storage methods

Solar energy is not available at night, making energy storage an important issue in order to provide the continuous availability of energy. Both wind power and solar power are intermittent energy sources, meaning that all available output must be taken when it is available and either stored for when it can be used, or transported, over transmission lines, to where it can be used. Wind power and solar power can be complementary, in locations that experience more wind in the winter and more sun in the summer, but on days with no sun and no wind the difference needs to be made up in some manner.

The Solar Two used this method of energy storage, allowing it to store enough heat in its 68 m3 storage tank to provide full output of 10 MWe for about 40 minutes, with an efficiency of about 99%. Salts are an effective storage medium because they are low-cost, have a high specific heat capacity and can deliver heat at temperatures compatible with conventional power systems, have the potential to eliminate the intermittency of solar power, by storing spare solar power in the form of heat; and using this heat overnight or during periods that solar power is not available to produce electricity. This technology has the potential to make solar power dispatchable, as the heat source can be used to generate electricity at will. Solar power installations are normally supplemented by storage or another energy source, for example with wind power and hydropower.

Off-grid PV systems have traditionally used rechargeable batteries to store excess electricity. With grid-tied systems, excess electricity can be sent to the transmission grid. Net metering programs give these systems a credit for the electricity they deliver to the grid. This credit offsets electricity provided from the grid when the system cannot meet demand, effectively using the grid as a storage mechanism. Credits are normally rolled over month to month and any remaining surplus settled annually.

Pumped-storage hydroelectricity stores energy in the form of water pumped when surplus electricity is available, from a lower elevation reservoir to a higher elevation one. The energy is recovered when demand is high by releasing the water: the pump becomes a turbine, and the motor a hydroelectric power generator.

Combining power sources in a power plant may also address storage issues. The Institute for Solar Energy Supply Technology of the University of Kassel pilot-tested a combined power plant linking solar, wind, biogas and hydrostorage to provide load-following power around the clock, entirely from renewable sources.

Honing Process

The hone-abrading process for obtaining cylindrical forms with precise dimensions and surfaces can be applied to internal cylindrical surfaces with a wide range of diameters such as engine cylinders, bearing bores, pin holes, etc. and also to some external cylindrical surfaces.

The process is used to:
1) eliminate inaccuracies resulting from previous operations by generating a true cylindrical form with respect to roundness and straightness within minimum
dimensional limits;
2) generate final dimensional size accuracy within low tolerances,
as may be required for interchangeability of parts;
3) provide rapid and economical
stock removal consistent with accomplishment of the other results; and
4) generate surface finishes of a specified degree of surface smoothness with high surface quality.

Amount and Rate of Stock Removal.—
Honing may be employed to increase bore diameters by as much as 0.100 inch or as little as 0.001 inch. The amount of stock removed by the honing process is entirely a question of processing economy. If other operations are performed before honing then the bulk of the stock should be taken off by the operation that can do it most economically.

In large diameter bores that have been distorted in heat treating,
it may be necessary to remove as much as 0.030 to 0.040 inch from the diameter to
make the bore round and straight. For out-of-round or tapered bores, a good “rule of
thumb” is to leave twice as much stock (on the diameter) for honing as there is error in the bore.

Another general rule is: For bores over one inch in diameter, leave 0.001 to 0.0015 inch stock per inch of diameter. For example, 0.002 to 0.003 inch of stock is left in twoinch bores and 0.010 to 0.015 inch in ten-inch bores. Where parts are to be honed for finish only, the amount of metal to be left for removing tool marks may be as little as 0.0002 to 0.015 inch on the diameter.

In general, the honing process can be employed to remove stock from bore diameters at the rate of 0.009 to 0.012 inch per minute on cast-iron parts and from 0.005 to 0.008 inch per minute on steel parts having a hardness of 60 to 65 Rockwell C. These rates are based on parts having a length equal to three or four times the diameter. Stock has been removed from long parts such as gun barrels, at the rate of 65 cubic inches per hour.

Recommended honing speeds for cast iron range from 110 to 200 surface feet per minute of rotation and from 50 to 110 lineal feet per minute of reciprocation. For steel, rotating surface speeds range from 50 to 110 feet per minute and reciprocation speeds from 20 to 90 lineal feet per minute. The exact rotation and reciprocation speeds to be used depend upon the size of the
work, the amount and characteristics of the material to be removed and the quality of the finish desired.

In general, the harder the material to be honed, the lower the speed. Interrupted bores are usually honed at faster speeds than plain bores.

Surface Grinding

The term surface grinding implies, in current technical usage, the grinding of surfaces
which are essentially flat. Several methods of surface grinding, however, are adapted and
used to produce surfaces characterized by parallel straight line elements in one direction,
while normal to that direction the contour of the surface may consist of several straight line
sections at different angles to each other (e.g., the guideways of a lathe bed); in other cases
the contour may be curved or profiled (e.g., a thread cutting chaser).

Advantages of Surface Grinding.—Alternate methods for machining work surfaces
similar to those produced by surface grinding are milling and, to a much more limited
degree, planing. Surface grinding, however, has several advantages over alternate methods
that are carried out with metal-cutting tools. Examples of such potential advantages are
as follows:
1) Grinding is applicable to very hard and/or abrasive work materials, without significant
effect on the efficiency of the stock removal.
2) The desired form and dimensional accuracy of the work surface can be obtained to a
much higher degree and in a more consistent manner.
3) Surface textures of very high finish and—when the appropriate system is utilized—
with the required lay, are generally produced.
4) Tooling for surface grinding as a rule is substantially less expensive, particularly for
producing profiled surfaces, the shapes of which may be dressed into the wheel, often with
simple devices, in processes that are much more economical than the making and the maintenance
of form cutters.
5) Fixturing for work holding is generally very simple in surface grinding, particularly
when magnetic chucks are applicable, although the mechanical holding fixture can also be
simpler, because of the smaller clamping force required than in milling or planing.
6) Parallel surfaces on opposite sides of the work are produced accurately, either in consecutive
operations using the first ground surface as a dependable reference plane or,
simultaneously, in double face grinding, which usually operates without the need for holding
the parts by clamping.
7) Surface grinding is well adapted to process automation, particularly for size control,
but also for mechanized work handling in the large volume production of a wide range of
component parts.

ProE - to create involutes using a datum curve from equations

The easiest way is to create the involutes using a datum curve from equations.
Assuming a cylindrical coordinate system your equations will be:
z=0
theta=(180/pi)*tan(t*alpha_max)-t*alpha_max+90
r=DBASE/(2*cos(t*alpha_max))
Where:
DBASE = m*z/cos(alpha) - base circle diameter
m - gear module
z - number of teeth
alpha_max - max roll angle (at tip circle)
alpha_max=acos(dbase/da)

This curve will give you one side of the tooth. To create the other side you will mirror this curve about the tooth center plane.

To create the tooth center plane you need first to determine the 1/2 center angle at the base circle (or 1/2 tooth thk. at base circle):

/*tooth half center opening at base circle
gamma=((pi/2+2*x*tan(alpha))/z+tan(alpha)-alpha*pi/180)*180/ pi
where: z - number of teeth
x - profile shift
alpha - pressure angle (20deg. typical)

Create the tooth center plane at this angle relative to the csys used to create the involute.

Mirror the involute curve about the previous plane. Now you should the both sides of the tooth. To complete the tooth profile refer to the basic rach information provided in the ISO 53 standard (or the corresponding AGMA standard).

Copy -Rotate the final tooth profile with a rotaion angle about the "z" axis equal to 360/z. Pattern this feature (360/z increment, z-1 copies)
You can use the ciurves to create cuts/protrusions for the crown

PLAIN BEARING MATERIALS

Materials used for sliding bearings cover a wide range of metals and nonmetals. To make the optimum selection requires a complete analysis of the specific application. The important general categories are: Babbitts, alkali-hardened lead, cadmium alloys, copper lead,aluminum bronze, silver, sintered metals, plastics, wood, rubber, and carbon graphite.Properties of Bearing Materials.—For a material to be used as a plain bearing, it must possess certain physical and chemical properties that permit it to operate properly. If a material does not possess all of these characteristics to some degree, it will not function long as a bearing. It should be noted, however, that few, if any, materials are outstanding in all these characteristics. Therefore, the selection of the optimum bearing material for a given application is at best a compromise to secure the most desirable combination of properties required for that particular usage.
The seven properties generally acknowledged to be the most significant are:
1) Fatigue resistance;
2) Embeddability;
3) Compatibility;
4) Conformability;
5) Thermal conductivity;
6) Corrosion resistance; and
7) Load capacity.

These properties are described as follows:

1) Fatigue resistance is the ability of the bearing lining material to withstand repeated applications of stress and strain without cracking, flaking, or being destroyed by some other means.

2) Embeddability is the ability of the bearing lining material to absorb or embed within itself any of the larger of the small dirt particles present in a lubrication system. Poor embeddability permits particles circulating around the bearing to score both the bearing surface and the journal or shaft. Good embeddability will permit these particles to be trapped and forced into the bearing surface and out of the way where they can do no harm.

3) Compatibility or antiscoring tendencies permit the shaft and bearing to “get along” with each other. It is the ability to resist galling or seizing under conditions of metal-tometal contact such as at startup. This characteristic is most truly a bearing property, because contact between the bearing and shaft in good designs occurs only at startup.

4) Conformability is defined as malleability or as the ability of the bearing material to creep or flow slightly under load, as in the initial stages of running, to permit the shaft and bearing contours to conform with each other or to compensate for nonuniform loading
caused by misalignment.

5) High thermal conductivity is required to absorb and carry away the heat generated in the bearing. This conductivity is most important, not in removing frictional heat generated in the oil film, but in preventing seizures due to hot spots caused by local asperity breakthroughs or foreign particles.

6) Corrosion resistance is required to resist attack by organic acids that are sometimes formed in oils at operating conditions.

7) Load capacity or strength is the ability of the material to withstand the hydrodynamic pressures exerted upon it during operation.

Journal Bearing Lubrication Analysis

The following procedure leads to a complete lubrication analysis which forms the basis for the bearing design.

1) Diameter of bearing d.
This is usually determined by considering strength and/or deflection requirements for the shaft using principles of strength of materials.
2) Length of bearing L
This is determined by an assumed l/d ratio in which l may or may
not be equal to the overall length, L (See Step 6). Bearing pressure and the possibility of edge loading due to shaft deflection and misalignment are factors to be considered.
In general, shaft misalignment resulting from location tolerances and/or shaft deflections should be maintained below 0.0003 inch per inch of length.
3) Bearing pressure pb
The unit load in pound per square inch is calculated from the formula:
pb =W/Kld
where K=1 for single oil hole
K=2 for central groove
W=load, pounds
l =bearing length
d=journal diameter, inches

Energy audits

An energy audit is an important step in developing energy efficiency program. This information sheet explains what an energy audit involves and how to maximize the benefits.

An energy audit may be applied to an individual facility, a group of facilities or all facilities. Audits may also be carried out early in the development of an energy management program, or at critical times during development and operation of the program. Over time, further audits may be appropriate, as the functions of a facility may change and the range of cost-effective energy technologies available will continue to expand.

What should an energy audit include?
Whether an energy audit is conducted using in-house or external resources, it should include the following steps:
A. Agree on the broad aims of the audit. The auditor needs to understand the aims of the audit in the context of what you want to achieve through your energy efficiency program. Reducing energy-related greenhouse gas emissions and reducing costs are obvious aims, but there could be others, such as:
1.reducing peak demand for electricity or other energy services (e.g. compressed air, steam);
2.securing energy supply (especially in the case of essential community services);
3.demonstrating energy efficiency or a particular energy-saving method,
4.using or demonstrating renewable energy;
5.reducing visible waste of energy (e.g. lights being left on when not needed), which can
6.undermine ratepayers’ and staff’s confidence in the Council’s commitment to energy
7.efficiency.
B.Understand any recent changes your Council’ or facility has undergone. This will
help the auditor make sense of recent energy consumption trends.
C. Understand any changes you expect your Council’ or facility to undergo within the next 5–10 years.
This will ensure the energy auditor’s recommendations are consistent with your broader plans, and the effect of planned changes is included in financial evaluations (for example, it’s much more cost-effective to upgrade lighting during a planned building refurbishment than as a separate project). Relevant plans could include:

1.Building or plant additions or alterations;
2.Changes to operations (for example, operating hours, services provided, staff numbers);
3.Relocation, combination with other facilities, etc.
4. Collect energy consumption data for the last two years (electricity, gas, liquid fuels, etc.) and graph the average daily energy use for each energy source. Also collect data on which to base energy consumption indicators (e.g. floor area, number of staff, pool
area).

5. Monitor and record the hourly pattern of electricity (and other significant energy sources) for at least one week. Where a ‘smart meter‘ is installed, your electricity retailer can supply a load profile. Other electricity meters can usually be monitored using a device that senses rotation of the spinning disc and records the number of revolutions, for example, per half hour.

6.Survey energy-using equipment, including:
1.Power ratings and loadings including real power measurement;
2.Operating times, and controls including time switches, thermostats, etc;
3.Condition;
4.The benefits or services which the equipment is used to produce.
7. Estimate the site energy consumption for each activity, based on the total operating hours and average power of each piece of equipment.Temporary monitoring equipment can be installed to ascertain the load profile of the larger electrical loads, such as air-conditioning plant, individual floors, or buildings on a multibuilding site.

Examples of temporary monitoring include:

1.Clamp-on electrical current monitoring;
2.Air temperature monitoring and logging (ambient air and in airconditioned buildings);
3.Run-time monitors, which detect the magnetic field of a running motor without accessing the power cable.
Where temporary metering requires access to electrical switchboards it must be installed by a licensed electrician or suitably qualified person.
8. Reconcile the calculated energy usage with:
1.The known total annual energy consumption;
2.Seasonal variation in energy consumption and peak power;
3.Energy consumption in each of the tariff periods (for example, peak, off-peak, shoulder,etc);
4.The weekly electrical demand profile (and gas profile if available).
9.Identify opportunities to reduce energy consumption and costs while maintaining or improving the quality of services (for example, lighting, air-conditioning) and achieving your organization’s other goals. These opportunities arise from improved efficiency of procedures, equipment, controls and using the most appropriate energy source.
The audit investigation must include:
1.Analysis of all energy sources purchased by Council, including electricity, natural gas, LPG and oil;
2.Evaluation of real energy-saving and greenhouse gas emission-saving measures (i.e. it must not be simply a tariff or pricing check);
3.Sufficient initial engineering design to ensure that the estimates of savings and investment are reasonable.

The audit report must include:
1.A concise, action-oriented executive summary of no more than two pages;
2.A practical implementation plan which accommodates any special requirements of your
3.Council, such as timing, cash flow, premises changes, etc.
4.Recommended indicators of energy efficiency, benchmarks, targets and a timetable to meet those targets, and ongoing monitoring of progress toward achieving those targets.
Costs and savingsAn energy audit conducted by an energy audit consultant will require an investment of between 3 and 5 per cent of a year’s energy costs. The audit can be expected to identify economically achievable measures which can save between 20 and 40 per cent of your energy costs. You should be able to implement some (at least half) of the recommendations immediately, while others may require further investigation.

Spring Stresses

Allowable Working Stresses for Springs.—The safe working stress for any particular
spring depends to a large extent on the following items:
1) Type of spring — whether compression, extension, torsion, etc.;
2) Size of spring — small or large, long or short;
3) Spring material;
4) Size of spring material;
5) Type of service — light, average, or severe;
6) Stress range — low, average, or high;
7) Loading — static, dynamic, or shock;
8) Operating temperature;
9) Design of spring — spring index, sharp bends, hooks.

Spring Materials

The spring materials most commonly used include high-carbon spring steels, alloy
spring steels, stainless spring steels, copper-base spring alloys, and nickel-base spring alloys.

High-Carbon Spring Steels in Wire Form.—These spring steels are the most commonly
used of all spring materials because they are the least expensive, are easily worked, and are readily available. However, they are not satisfactory for springs operating at high or low temperatures or for shock or impact loading.

The following wire forms are available:
Music Wire, ASTM A228 (0.80–0.95 per cent carbon): This is the most widely used of
all spring materials for small springs operating at temperatures up to about 250 degrees F.

It is tough, has a high tensile strength, and can withstand high stresses under repeated loading.

The material is readily available in round form in diameters ranging from 0.005 to
0.125 inch and in some larger sizes up to 3⁄16 inch. It is not available with high tensile
strengths in square or rectangular sections. Music wire can be plated easily and is obtainable pretinned or preplated with cadmium, but plating after spring manufacture is usually preferred for maximum corrosion resistance.

Oil-Tempered MB Grade, ASTM A229 (0.60–0.70 per cent carbon): This general-purpose
spring steel is commonly used for many types of coil springs where the cost of music
wire is prohibitive and in sizes larger than are available in music wire. It is readily available in diameters ranging from 0.125 to 0.500 inch, but both smaller and larger sizes may be obtained. The material should not be used under shock and impact loading conditions, at temperatures above 350 degrees F., or at temperatures in the sub-zero range. Square and rectangular sections of wire are obtainable in fractional sizes. Annealed stock also can be obtained for hardening and tempering after coiling. This material has a heat-treating scale that must be removed before plating.

Oil-Tempered HB Grade, SAE 1080 (0.75–0.85 per cent carbon): This material is similar to the MB Grade except that it has a higher carbon content and a higher tensile strength.

It is obtainable in the same sizes and is used for more accurate requirements than the MB Grade, but is not so readily available. In lieu of using this material it may be better to use an alloy spring steel, particularly if a long fatigue life or high endurance properties are needed. Round and square sections are obtainable in the oil-tempered or annealed conditions.

Hard-Drawn MB Grade, ASTM A227 (0.60–0.70 per cent carbon): This grade is used
for general-purpose springs where cost is the most important factor. Although increased use in recent years has resulted in improved quality, it is best not to use it where long life and accuracy of loads and deflections are important. It is available in diameters ranging from 0.031 to 0.500 inch and in some smaller and larger sizes also. The material is available in square sections but at reduced tensile strengths. It is readily plated. Applications should be limited to those in the temperature range of 0 to 250 degrees F.

High-Carbon Spring Steels in Flat Strip Form.—Two types of thin, flat, high-carbon
spring steel strip are most widely used although several other types are obtainable for specific applications in watches, clocks, and certain instruments. These two compositions are used for over 95 per cent of all such applications. Thin sections of these materials under 0.015 inch having a carbon content of over 0.85 per cent and a hardness of over 47 on the Rockwell C scale are susceptible to hydrogen-embrittlement even though special plating and heating operations are employed.

The two types are described as follows:
Cold-Rolled Spring Steel, Blue-Tempered or Annealed, SAE 1074, also 1064, and 1070
(0.60 to 0.80 per cent carbon): This very popular spring steel is available in thicknesses ranging from 0.005 to 0.062 inch and in some thinner and thicker sections. The material is available in the annealed condition for forming in 4-slide machines and in presses, and can readily be hardened and tempered after forming. It is also available in the heat-treated or blue-tempered condition. The steel is obtainable in several finishes such as straw color,blue color, black, or plain. Hardnesses ranging from 42 to 46 Rockwell C are recommended for spring applications. Uses include spring clips, flat springs, clock springs, and
motor, power, and spiral springs.

Cold-Rolled Spring Steel, Blue-Tempered Clock Steel, SAE 1095 (0.90 to 1.05 per cent
carbon): This popular type should be used principally in the blue-tempered condition. Although obtainable in the annealed condition, it does not always harden properly during heat-treatment as it is a “shallow” hardening type. It is used principally in clocks and motor springs. End sections of springs made from this steel are annealed for bending or piercing operations. Hardnesses usually range from 47 to 51 Rockwell C.

Other materials available in strip form and used for flat springs are brass, phosphorbronze, beryllium-copper, stainless steels, and nickel alloys.
Alloy Spring Steels.—These spring steels are used for conditions of high stress, and
shock or impact loadings. They can withstand both higher and lower temperatures than the high-carbon steels and are obtainable in either the annealed or pretempered conditions.

Chromium Vanadium, ASTM A231: This very popular spring steel is used under conditions involving higher stresses than those for which the high-carbon spring steels are recommended and is also used where good fatigue strength and endurance are needed. It behaves well under shock and impact loading. The material is available in diameters ranging from 0.031 to 0.500 inch and in some larger sizes also. In square sections it is available in fractional sizes. Both the annealed and pretempered types are available in round, square, and rectangular sections. It is used extensively in aircraft-engine valve springs and for springs operating at temperatures up to 425 degrees F.

Silicon Manganese: This alloy steel is quite popular in Great Britain. It is less expensive than chromium-vanadium steel and is available in round, square, and rectangular sections in both annealed and pretempered conditions in sizes ranging from 0.031 to 0.500 inch. It was formerly used for knee-action springs in automobiles. It is used in flat leaf springs for trucks and as a substitute for more expensive spring steels.

Chromium Silicon, ASTM A401: This alloy is used for highly stressed springs that
require long life and are subjected to shock loading. It can be heat-treated to higher hardnesses than other spring steels so that high tensile strengths are obtainable. The most popular sizes range from 0.031 to 0.500 inch in diameter. Very rarely are square, flat, or rectangular sections used. Hardnesses ranging from 50 to 53 Rockwell C are quite common and the alloy may be used at temperatures up to 475 degrees F. This material is usually ordered specially for each job.

Stainless Spring Steels.—The use of stainless spring steels has increased and several compositions are available all of which may be used for temperatures up to 550 degrees F. They are all corrosion resistant. Only the stainless 18-8 compositions should be used at sub-zero temperatures.

Stainless Type 302, ASTM A313 (18 per cent chromium, 8 per cent nickel): This stainless spring steel is very popular because it has the highest tensile strength and quite uniform properties. It is cold-drawn to obtain its mechanical properties and cannot be hardened by heat treatment. This material is nonmagnetic only when fully annealed and becomes slightly magnetic due to the cold-working performed to produce spring properties.

It is suitable for use at temperatures up to 550 degrees F. and for sub-zero temperatures.

It is very corrosion resistant. The material best exhibits its desirable mechanical
properties in diameters ranging from 0.005 to 0.1875 inch although some larger diameters are available. It is also available as hard-rolled flat strip. Square and rectangular sections are available but are infrequently used.

PUNCHES, DIES, AND PRESS WORK

There are two methods of giving clearance to dies: In one method, the clearance extends to the top face of the die; and in the other, there is a space about 1⁄8 inch below the cutting edge that is left practically straight, or having a very small amount of clearance.
For very soft metal, such as soft, thin brass, the first method is employed, but for harder material, such as hard brass, steel, etc., it is better to have a very small clearance for a short distance below the cutting edge. When a die is made in this way, thousands of blanks can be cut with little variation in their size, as grinding the die face will not enlarge the hole to any appreciable extent.
Lubricants for Press Work.—Blanking dies used for carbon and low-alloy steels are
often run with only residual mill lubricant, but will last longer if lightly oiled. Higher alloy and stainless steels require thicker lubricants. Kerosene is usually used with aluminum.
Lubricant thickness needs to be about 0.0001 in. and can be obtained with about 1 pint of fluid to cover 500 sq. ft of material. During successive strokes, metal debris adheres to the punch and may accelerate wear, but damage may be reduced by application of the lubricant to the sheet or strip by means of rollers or spray. High-speed blanking may require heavier applications or a continuous airless spraying of oil. For sheet thicker than 1⁄8 in. and for stainless steel, high-pressure lubricants containing sulfurs and chlorines are often used.
Shallow drawing and forming of steel can be done with low-viscosity oils and soap solutions, but deeper draws require light- to medium-viscosity oils containing fats and such active elements as sulfur or phosphorus, and mineral fillers such as chalk or mica. Deep drawing often involves ironing or thinning of the walls by up to 35 per cent, and thick oils containing high proportions of chemically active compounds are used. Additives used in drawing compounds are selected for their ability to maintain a physical barrier between the tool surfaces and the metal being shaped. Dry soaps and polymer films are frequently used for these purposes. Aluminum can be shallow drawn with oils of low to medium viscosity, and for deep drawing, tallow may be added, also wax or soap suspensions for very large reductions.
Annealing Drawn Shells.—When drawing steel, iron, brass, or copper, annealing is necessary after two or three draws have been made, because the metal is hardened by the drawing process. For steel and brass, anneal between alternate reductions, at least. Tin plate or stock that cannot be annealed without spoiling the finish must ordinarily be drawn to size in one or two operations. Aluminum can be drawn deeper and with less annealing than the other commercial metals, provided the proper grade is used. If it is necessary to anneal aluminum, it should be heated in a muffle furnace, care being taken to see that the temperature does not exceed 700 degrees F.
Drawing Brass.—When drawing brass shells or cup-shaped articles, it is usually possible to make the depth of the first draw equal to the diameter of the shell. By heating brass to a temperature just below what would show a dull red in a dark room, it is possible to draw difficult shapes, otherwise almost impossible, and to produce shapes with square corners.
Drawing Rectangular Shapes.—When square or rectangular shapes are to be drawn, the
radius of the corners should be as large as possible, because defects usually occur in the corners when drawing. Moreover, the smaller the radius, the less the depth that can be obtained in the first draw.
The maximum depths that can be drawn with corners of a given radii are approximately
as follows: With a radius of 3⁄32 to 3⁄16 inch, depth of draw, 1 inch; radius3⁄16 to 3⁄8 inch, depth 11⁄2 inches; radius3⁄8 to 1⁄2 inch, depth 2 inches; and radius1⁄2 to 3⁄4 inch, depth 3 inches.
These figures are taken from actual practice and can doubtless be exceeded slightly when using metal prepared for the process. If the box needs to be quite deep and the radius is quite small, two or more drawing operations will be necessary.
Speeds and Pressures for Presses.—The speeds for presses equipped with cutting dies
depend largely upon the kind of material being worked, and its thickness. For punching and shearing ordinary metals not over 1⁄4 inch thick, the speeds usually range between 50 and 200 strokes per minute, 100 strokes per minute being a fair average. For punching metal over 1⁄4 inch thick, geared presses with speeds ranging from 25 to 75 strokes per minute are commonly employed.
The cutting pressures required depend upon the shearing strength of the material, and the actual area of the surface being severed. For round holes, the pressure required equals the circumference of the hole × the thickness of the stock × the shearing strength. To allow for some excess pressure, the tensile strength may be substituted for the shearing strength; the tensile strength for these calculations may be roughly assumed as follows:
Mild steel, 60,000; wrought iron, 50,000; bronze, 40,000; copper, 30,000; aluminum,
20,000; zinc, 10,000; and tin and lead, 5,000 pounds per square inch.
Pressure Required for Punching.—The formula for the force in tons required to punch a circular hole in sheet steel is πDST/2000, where S = the shearing strength of the material in lb/in.2, T = thickness of the steel in inches, and 2000 is the number of lb in 1 ton. An approximate formula is DT × 80, where D and T are the diameter of the hole and the thickness of the steel, respectively, both in inches, and 80 is a factor for steel. The result is the force in tons.

Bearings for underwater applications

Plastics Bearings—
A more recent development has been the use of Acetal resin rollers and balls in applications where abrasive, corrosive and difficult-to-lubricate conditions exist. Although these bearings do not have the load carrying capacity nor the low friction factor of their hard steel counterparts, they do offer freedom from indentation, wear, and corrosion, while at the same time providing significant weight savings of additional value are:

1) their resistance to indentation from shock loads or oscillation;
2) their self-lubricating properties.

Usually these bearings are not available from stock, but must be designed and produced
in accordance with the data made available by the plastics processor.